CURRICULUM DESIGN

3.1 Some Guiding Principles in Structuring the Curriculum and Selecting the Curriculum Content

With the implementation of compulsory education, every school-age child is entitled school education. For the maladjusted children who cannot benefit from the ordinary school environment, a specially designed curriculum geared to their needs is a necessity towards the actualization of equal chances in education for all.

Since the majority of maladjusted children requiring special education are of normal intelligence and their problems are largely transient, the main function of the special schools for this category of children is to help them mainstream in ordinary schools and integrate into their society. Therefore, the arrangement of their curriculum should basically follow that of ordinary primary and junior secondary schools. Also, the general principles of curriculum management in the mainstream, by and large, are applicable in these schools as well. What is required is to adapt the mainstream curriculum in the light of facilitating the personal and social development of these children, and overcoming their learning difficulties. Curriculum for these children may be modified along the following principles :

3.1.1 Development of a Balanced Curriculum

The existing curriculum is academically-oriented with more emphasis on

cognitive development and less consideration on pupils’ individual needs, abilities, interests, potentials and developmental history. Apart from this, personal and social development, self-understanding and various levels of life skills training have never been explicitly included in the

curriculum as a unique subject. Therefore, when planning the curriculum for maladjusted children, their special needs should be taken into consideration. Besides the basic academic and cultural subjects, there should be appropriate weighting of learning areas in personal and social development. On top of this, a balanced weighting of subjects should be worked out according to the available resources to meet the interest and ability of individual pupils, and givie them chances to gain success and pleasure in their school life.

3.1.2 Development of

Multiple Intelligences

It has been the practice in the field of education to differentiate children into ability groups through intelligence tests. However, these tests are biased towards assessing abilities in languages and mathematical or logical thinking. Pupils who are slow in developing these two aspects may risk having other potentials left untapped.

Howard Gardner (1983), a psychologist of Harvard University, has suggested that human beings possess multiple

intelligences. At least the following seven have been detected:

linguistic,

logical-mathematical,

spatial,

bodily-kinaesthetic,

musical,

inter-personal and

intra-personal.

Gardner’s theory has great implications to education since the developmental milestones of each intelligence vary with individuals and every child has his or her unique intellectual profile. Curriculum integration is a good way to nurture children’s multiple intelligences through integrated and daily life learning activities. In addition, children can also figure out their own ways to develop different intelligences. (please see Appendix 2 for details).

3.1.3 Tailoring with Consideration of Curriculum Continuity and Internal Coherence

Special schools should appropriately adapt the mainstream curriculum by means of simplification, abridgement, reorganisation, extension and selection. Teachers should be given a free hand in this process.

At the beginning of each term, schools should call

cross-subject curriculum meeting to ensure continuity and coherence of the whole curriculum. The actual curriculum tailoring should then be systematically conducted as designed by the well-experienced personnel.

3.1.4 Incorporation of

Communicationand

Interpersonal Skills Training

Maladjusted children can establish effective relationship with their immediate environment be it their families, schools or communities only if their communication and interpersonal skills improve significantly. Therefore these skills should be included in the curriculum as a subject, and widely incorporated into other subjects and their school life whenever appropriate. In selection of teaching content and learning activities, teachers should provide children with opportunities to practise the skills of conveying ideas and expressing feelings, so as to promote interpersonal skills and co-operation. Apart from it, teachers can also observe and assess children’s progress.

3.1.5 Relevance to Daily Living

The vast majority of maladjusted children incline to crave for immediate gratification and short term interest. Therefore, the content of their curriculum needs to be relevant in order to be meaningful. Generally speaking, the existing mainstream curriculum fails to motivate them to learn since it is too academic to include sufficient consideration in its practical value in day to day living. In selecting and delivering their curriculum, it is essential to include daily life materials to ensure that learning is meaningful for them.

For pupils with more severe problems, the difficulties in selecting suitable curriculum for them are aggravated by their unfavourable experiences which give them a distorted view of life. So they need a more specially designed curriculum.

3.1.6 Content Comparable to Their Developmental Stage and Attainment Level

In comparison with peer of the same age, maladjusted children are generally backward in attainment. This complicates the selection of teaching materials. Standard teaching materials appropriate to their attainment level may be too childish for them while those comparable to their life experience would be too advanced academically. Hence, teachers have to re-write or revise the standard teaching materials according to the developmental stages and attainment levels of their pupils.

3.1.7 Integration of Theoretical Studies and Practical Work

Owing to their short attention span, pupils cannot stand passive learning for long. This will easily lead to discipline and management problems. So blending the theoretical study with practical work and ensuring pupils’ participation during the course can help to sustain their interest and sense of achievement. It in turn motivates their further learning.

3.1.8 Attention to Individual Differences

Although there are problems common to these pupils, there is a large discrepancy among them in learning and emotional difficulties. So without depriving pupils of appropriate group interaction, rooms and flexibility in the curriculum design should be allowed in order to cater for their individual needs.

3.1.9 Realistic Review of Achievement through Timely and Continuous Formative and Summative Assessment

The traditional

norm reference

assessment can only increase their sense of failure. Besides, these children are easily disturbed by their emotions and thus may affect their performance during the assessment. Therefore, continuous formative assessment at appropriate stages of learning can be more accurate in revealing the effectiveness of their learning. Besides, the assessment should be

target-oriented and the means need to be diversified. Through this process, teachers can get feedback on the effectiveness of their teaching and also pupils can be immediately informed of teachers’ comment on their performance, thus reducing their anxiety and gradually establishing confidence in school work.

3.1.10

Multi-disciplinaryApproach in Curriculum Design and Delivery

Since enhancing

personal and social development is important in achieving the aims of education for maladjusted pupils, professionals concerned can render educational and

counseling services. So, their participation in curriculum design and delivery should be encouraged.

As a conclusion for this section, maladjusted children require a curriculum which lays heavier emphasis on personal social development. As for the effectiveness of any curriculum, it relies on appropriate means of delivery other than a good structure and content.

3.2 Structure and Content of Curriculum

The curriculum for maladjusted children suggests

learning areas and experience at the primary and junior secondary level. Since the ultimate aim of education for these children is integration, it may mean mainstream junior secondary education for all primary pupils; mainstream senior secondary education or technical education for those junior secondary pupils who show aptitude towards furthering their studies; or open employment for others who need jobs. So in general, the areas of learning and experience recommended to ordinary primary and junior secondary schools are also appropriate for them. However, priority must be given to the learning element related to personal and social development.

3.2.1 Curriculum Content for Primary Section of

Schools for Social Development

Table 1 below presents the learning areas and experience suggested at primary level.

Schools with residential service can provide children with whole day care in education and daily living. There must be close co-operation among teaching, residential and other non-teaching staff to ensure a consistent and coherent continuum of services.

3.2.2 Curriculum Content for Secondary Section of Schools for Social Development

Since these children may pass or near the age limit of

compulsory education by the time they complete junior secondary education, they have a choice of vocational training or direct employment besides furthering their formal studies. So the curriculum should be flexible enough to cater for the needs of pupils of different abilities and aptitudes. However, it does not mean that pupils who opt for employment are shut out from academic pursuit since the core curriculum has already provided them a good subject knowledge foundation upon which further study through adult education or other channels of open learning is feasible.

Table 2 presents the learning areas and experience at junior secondary level.

3.3 Curriculum Orientation

The central issues in curriculum development are what to teach and what to learn. Lee and Wong (1994) have discussed five curriculum concepts presented by Eisner and Vallance (1974)1 among which the curriculum orientation that advocates ﹛elf-actualisation of personal development” may be an approach appropriate to the education for maladjusted children. The curriculum design is child-centred and developmental-oriented. Its educational function is to help children attain personal adjustment and development. At the same time, learning process is emphasised. Pupils can build up more positive attitudes towards oneself, peers and learning through a totally experiential or humanitarian curriculum. Under good teacher-pupil relationship and harmonious learning environment together with

affective orientation, learning will become meaningful and the aim of personal development will be achieved. The

Target Oriented Curriculum (TOC), a local curriculum innovation in the 90’s, in the following ways, may be compatible in realising the curriculum orientation of personal-development and self-actualisation.

T.1 : Learning Areas and Learning Experience for Pupils in Primary Section of Schools for Social Development

T.2: Learning Areas and Learning Experience for Pupils in Secondary Section of Schools for Social Development

3.3.1 Characteristics of

Target Oriented Curriculum(TOC) (For details, please see Appendix 3)

(1)	Create curricula that emphasise the linkage among subjects, highlights the learning elements and do away with redundancy and fragmentation from the traditional curriculum.
(2)	Let children learn actively and purposefully through appropriate and practical tasks.
(3)	Highlight the relationship between language and learning; communication and acquisition of knowledge.
(4)	Emphasize the process of learning. Clearly acknowledge the continuous progress that pupils have made.
(5)	Replace norm referencing assessment with criterion referencing formative and summative assessment
(6)	Design curriculum that has taken pupils' abilities and needs into consideration.
(7)	Effectively link up different stages of learning.

The above may be achieved through defining a hierarchy of learning targets which may be achieved through subject learning. For this reason, the main learning targets should be divided into subjects and dimension learning targets and learning objects for each key stage. As for the subject content, it should include relevant knowledge, thinking, skills and attitudes which are appropriate for attainment of different levels of learning targets and objectives set. In this way teaching and learning of a specific topic is seen to be inter-related. To deliver the curriculum to the pupils, curriculum strategies which emphasised effective learning are to be arranged. For evaluation of pupils’ progress, target-oriented assessment is based on criterion referencing principles and to be carried out by means of various assessment tasks and exercises in addition to written assessments (For details, please see Appendix 5).

3.3.2 Implication on Schools for Social Development

To schools for social development, this curriculum reform should be considered favourable for the following reasons :

(1)	It can address to learning problems distinct to maladjusted pupils.
(2)	Target-oriented assessment can do away with the conventional norm-reference assessment in which pupils’ sense of failure is perpetually increased.
(3)	TOC is designed to cater for individual differences in their learning paces, interests and needs. So it really suitable for these children.
(4)	The class size in schools for social development is relatively small.
(5)	Greater flexibility in planning of learning experience, teaching methods, etc. is allowed by the school authority in these schools.

 

3.4 Curriculum Organisation

To implement the above discussed curriculum orientation, the following ways of curriculum organisation are suggested for reference.

3.4.1. Curriculum Tailoring

Curriculum tailoring is the adaptation of a curriculum according to the academic standard and stage of maturation of the pupils. With learning content more appropriate to their levels of attainment, pupils may be better motivated to learn. Curriculum tailoring may be an extension or a cutting-down of the core learning area of a subject. Therefore it is essential to demarcate the core learning area for each stage of learning before any tailoring can be conducted.

For primary level pupils, the specific aim of education is to prepare them to integrate into mainstream schools. So core areas of learning and experience for ordinary primary schools should be covered, but priority should be given to basic knowledge and skills in each area.

As for curriculum tailoring for junior secondary pupils, more consideration should be given to learning aptitude and attainment of pupils. According to individual needs of the development of multiple intelligences, pupils must be given the appropriate options from a diversified curriculum, so that they can acquire the abilities to meet the basic requirements for further study or employment.

After selection of learning content, there should be effective ways to organise the content for delivery to pupils :

(1)	In-depth understanding of the aims, content and sequence of learning of the curriculum
(2)	Right choice of the starting point for remedial teaching
(3)	Immediate compensation for what has not been fully grasped by pupils in learning
(4)	Diversity in teaching methods
(5)	Low level point of entry, correct pace, plenty of activities and timely feedback
(6)	Provide experience of success to break the vicious cycle between failure and low confidence
(7)	Reinforce the motivation of learning which comes from the sense of achievement
(8)	Integration of similar teaching content from different subjects to avoid redundancy

3.4.2

Mastery Learning

Mastery learning is one of the means of gearing teaching to the needs of children of different abilities and interests.

In a mastery learning process (for flow chart, please see Appendix 4) , the concepts and materials to be learned are first divided into sequential learning units, each with clearly stated learning objectives. The units are then listed in order of increasing complexity. After finishing each unit, a formative assessment is administered to diagnose whether the pupils have attained the targets or not and to give feedback on their learning. The pupils who have not mastered a particular unit will be engaged in remedial activities aiming at providing extra and alternative learning experiences to overcome their difficulties. Then a second parallel formative assessment will be given. For those who demonstrate mastery on the first formative assessment,

enrichment activities on the same unit are provided in order to broaden and expand their learning. Having mastered a unit, pupils can proceed to the next unit. In view of its characteristics, mastery learning is especially effective for those subjects with clear and orderly arranged knowledge structure. The method of instruction is group-based and teacher-paced. It can be applied in typical classroom situations where instructional time is fixed. So this suits the mode of operation in most of the schools for social development.

Research findings on mastery learning show that it is effective in promoting pupils'

cognitive and

affective development. It just meets the aim of education for the maladjusted.

3.4.3

Modular Curriculum

A modularised curriculum is made up of learning units called

modules. A module is a well structured or self-contained learning unit which is complete with specific objectives, contents, teaching / learning strategies and some forms of assessment. The concept of the

core,

extension,

remedial and

elective modules are illustrated in Diagram 1 of Appendix 5 showing the essential features of a modular curriculum.

A module may be free standing, or a building block to provide the means for grouping and re-grouping, insertion or deletion within a larger curriculum framework. The aim of introducing a module is to facilitate choice, flexibility and reducing labelling effects.

There are many models for designing a modular curriculum. The following two are suggested for consideration:

(1) Within a subject area : Topic core and topic elective modules

The topics or domains of learning within a subject area are grouped under Core Modules and Elective Modules. Core modules consist of essential learning areas which are to be learned by all pupils. For example, in Social Studies, the following five modular or thematic units may be included : Knowing oneself, one’s family, peers, society and country. Remedial and Extension modules cater for pupils with different learning abilities. Remedial modules refer to tailored materials on core modules to help weaker pupils to consolidate their learning. Extension modules are additional materials for more able pupils to deepen their understanding of the core modules. Elective modules broaden the content of the subject and provide options for the pupils with different interest and need. Some suggested elective modulars or thematic units in Social Studies are modules on adolescence, Hong Kong, China and the world. A diagrammatic representation of the modular structure within a subject using Social Studies as an example is shown in Diagram 2 in Appendix 5.

(2) Within the whole curriculum : Subject core and Subject elective modules

Subject areas are pooled under

Core Subjects

and groups of

Elective Subject modules. Core subjects are to be taken by all pupils within a year band. Elective subjects may be selected from a group of modules depending on the available resources at school and the needs of pupils. The elective modules may be subject-specific, inter-disciplinary or trans-disciplinary. A diagrammatic representation of the modular structure in a curriculum is shown in Diagram 3 in Appendix 5.

The advantages of adopting modularised curriculum for maladjusted pupils are :

(1)	It is well structured to avoid redundancy in curriculum content. This structure facilitates flexible arrangement in time-tabling, grouping and staffing deployment.
(2)	Each module clearly states its specific objectives in terms of concepts, skills and attitudes to be achieved, facilitating more successful experience in learning for the pupils.
(3)	Modularised curriculum provides flexibility and choice. This can enhance curriculum tailoring and cater for individual differences among pupils. Moreover, its structure expedites the insertion or deletion of teaching content when necessary. This is helpful in taking care of pupils who are admitted at different times of the school year. In spite of all these advantages, attention must be paid to cohere the modules so that the curriculum is comprehensive without being fragmented or the important contents being missed out.

3.4.4 Curriculum Integration

The rationale behind curriculum integration is multi-functional. Two are emphasized here:

(1)	To develop life-long learning abilities and habits as well as fundamental concepts and principles which is required by every learner in a fast-changing world.
(2)	To arouse interest in learning by using authentic scenarios and through activities perceived as meaningful by the pupils.

Through close collaboration of teachers of various disciplines, rigid subject boundaries can be diminished, thus allowing the creation of authentic scenarios and purposeful activities.

All these are conducive to long-term learning. The initial steps to integrate the school curriculum are:

(1)	setting up an interdisciplinary teacher team to design, and, later, implement the integrated curriculum for a certain level.
(2)	matching the topics to be taught in each subjects every month so as to create inter-topic links which usually appears in the form of themes.
(3)	aligning those related topics to be taught at the same time.

The essential step is to design some real-life learning activities in which pupils can see the meaning and aims in learning.

The sense of purpose is mainly induced by the following two ways:

(1)	a few fundamental open-ended questions for pupils to investigate
(2)	some authentic tasks for pupils to complete

These pupil activities are often made interesting by involving multiple intelligences.

The final steps (often carried out in the subsequent couple of years), include arranging the above-mentioned activities to cover a large number of life long learning abilities which can be conveniently assessed. These abilities include information processing, higher-order thinking, communication, and collaboration, etc. They can be conveniently assessed through shared responsibilities among subject teachers.

 

3.5 Teaching Strategies

The education of maladjusted pupils aims at providing knowledge, skills and support in personal growth. Affective and cognitive education are assumed to be interdependent. Effective teaching and learning can help to improve pupils’ academic performance, their sense of achievement and self-image. Subsequently, more adaptive and desirable behaviour would be developed.

Thus, for maladjusted pupils, effective teaching should entail :

1.	selection and arrangement of teaching content based on the set curriculum targets but geared to the aptitudes and needs of the pupils.
2.	diversified teaching techniques to enhance the interaction of teaching and learning.
3.	classroom management strategies that enhance effectiveness in learning.

The commonly found learning difficulties presented by maladjusted pupils, their causes and strategies generally applied in remedial work are listed in Table 3.

T.3 : Common Learning Difficulties Presented by Maladjusted Pupils, Possible Causes & Suggested Remedial Teaching Strategies

Learning Difficulties Presented	Possible Causes	Outline of Suggested Elements to be Included in the Remedial Teaching Strategies
Lack of interest in schoolwork	-School work too difficult to manage -Lessons going too fast -Content not comparable to   social experience or stage of maturation -Do not find any value in studying certain subjects	-Find out pupils’ baseline and design tasks appropriate to their abilities -Appropriate task analysis for the teaching content into manageable steps for pupils -Be observant of pupils’ current interests and bring them into the teaching content & presentation to enhance interest in learning -Incorporate relevant topics and practical examples -Employ attractive teaching methods e.g. use appropriate media, include more activities
Reject school education	-Both pupils & parents lack realistic expectations on school education -Teaching aims and targets are not clearly known to pupils	-Pupils and parents counseling on the functions of school -Clear learning objectives for each learning area, subject, topic and lesson -Selection of teaching content relevant to daily life -Point out the relevance of learning topics which seems far-fetched to pupils
Lack of confidence Cannot work independently Do not dare to try anything new	-Repeated failure -Being constantly reprimanded -Fail to understand one’s potential -In lack of encouragement and opportunities to success	-Arrange opportunities to get meaningful success to enhance self image e.g.  1.   Start teaching at pupils baseline, break the content into manageable steps and give        feedback on pupils’ performance  2.   Explore non-academic potentials of pupils  3.   Constant positive but realistic remarks and encouragement by teachers and other staff  4.   Train pupils in effective study skills  5.   Alternate difficult tasks with tasks in which pupils are competent
Not attentive, Cannot stay long on any piece of work Easily distracted	-Related to interest and relevance of teaching material & method -Short attention span -Long for immediate gratification -Peer influence -Feeling insecure	-Select appropriate teaching content and teaching method -Organise the teaching content into small steps to ensure success within a short period of time and then gradually extent the steps -Positive recognition for each small step of learning to encourage persistence in achieving targets -Create predictable working environment to enhance sense of security and autonomy
Not well developed in thinking and organisation skills	-Not encouraged or given chances to think -Lack of systematic training and practice	-More effective teaching and discussion to foster pupils thinking and organizing abilities -Training in thinking skills -Training in task analysis
Disruptive in class	-Attention seeking -Boredom -Peer influence -Lack of rapport with teachers -Lack of communication skill	-Arrange legitimate opportunities to excel oneself -Effective selection of teaching content and methods -Cultivate good teacher-pupils relationship through better understanding of pupils’ background and behaviour -Training in communication skills

Based on the understanding of the pupils’ learning difficulties and the fundamental principles of effective teaching, the following teaching strategies are recommended for reference :

3.5.1 Strategies for Improving Motivation

Following are some motivational strategies, both intrinsic and extrinsic, that are effective for general teaching in classroom.

(1)	Creating a predictable learning environment for pupils in order to enhance their sense of autonomy and their confidence in controlling the environment. Most maladjusted pupils are not willing or not able to adapt to changes in the environment. Hence, setting up predictable and structured daily routines may enhance their sense of security, reduce their off-task behavior and extend their attention span.
(2)	Alternating difficult and unfamiliar tasks with manageable ones may increase their confidence in coping with problems. Furthermore, alternating theoretical presentation with practical applications promote interest in learning.
(3)	Providing ample opportunities for pupils to achieve, e.g. in Physical Education, Art and Design or Art and Craft. Achievement in non-academic learning areas are also encouraged.
(4)	Both tangible and social reinforcement is effective in promoting pupils’ learning.
(5)	Sustaining the interest and attention of pupils by using stimulating teaching methods, including the use of appropriate teaching materials, aids and activities.

3.5.2 Strategies for Handling Individual Differences among Pupils in Academic Achievement

Maladjusted children are, in general, backward in academic achievement. However, there still exists a wide range of individual differences among pupils in a class. The following measures are suggested for effective teaching.

(1) Grouping of pupils

(a) Re-grouping according to pupils' attainment level in specific subjects

Depending on the resources available, all pupils in the school or pupils of the same grade may be re-grouped according to their attainment in certain subjects. So that the learning progress of the more able pupils may not be slowed down while learning interest of the less able pupils can be sustained because they are no longer frustrated by the unmanageable learning tasks as before.

Notes:

(1)	There should be sufficient grouping so that there will be the greatest level of homogeneity within each.
(2)	When lower achievers are grouped together, negative impact on their confidence may be resulted. So teachers must incorporate other ways of grouping and guidance to alleviate its impact.
(3)	Time table and classroom allocation need to be well arranged.
(4)	Feasibility of grouping is limited by the number and expertise of teachers in the school.
(5)	Special attention should be paid on disciplinary control when flowing groups.

(b) Grouping within a class

After delivering the required knowledge and skills for each lesson, pupils are divided into groups for activities. Ways of grouping may be done as follows:

(1)	Grouping according to attainment level with appropriate tasks and worksheets given to each group.
(2)	Grouping according to interest so that pupils of different abilities but with same interest are grouped to investigate together, making different contribution to the group.
(3)	Mixed abilities grouping so that the more able can help the less able. This will help both the lower through peer tutoring and the higher by their having to develop a deeper understanding of the topic in order to teach.
(4)	Group the weaker pupils together and give them additional help before or after lessons so that they can gain more time to learn.

Notes:

(1)	Teachers must be able and have the time to design teaching materials of graded difficulties on a specific topic.
(2)	Allocation of time and preparation of teaching material for each lesson must be well planned beforehand.

(c) Individual educational programmes

A specifically designed individual learning programme for pupils of the two extremes in the class is needed to cater for their special needs.

(2) Arrangement in teaching and learning

Teachers should create a learning environment with appropriate teaching contents and activities for pupils so that their experience in learning is pleasurable. During the lesson, teachers should grasp every opportunity to make individual contact with pupils so that their individual differences can be taken care of.

When teaching a mixed ability class, the teacher may try the following suggestions:

(a) Helping the weaker pupils:

(1)	When teaching a complicated topic, teach the main concepts first.
(2)	Sequence complicated problems so that they can be taught and solved in a step by step manner.
(3)	For pupils who have difficulty grasping abstract ideas, explain clearly with the help of concrete examples and models.

(b) Helping the more able pupils :

(1)	Allow them to solve problems independently.
(2)	Give them open-ended problems to encourage their thinking.
(3)	After learning a topic, encourage them to formulate their own project for further investigation.

(3) Arrangement of tasks and worksheets

When designing tasks and worksheet for pupils, effects of learning may be maximized by the following measures :

(a) The weaker group may be helped as follows:

(1)	There should be more pictorial prompts.
(2)	There should be more and varied examples.
(3)	Question should be phrased simply with several steps to match their learning pace.
(4)	They should be guided to practise logical thinking.

(b) The higher ability group may be helped in the following ways:

(1)	Allow them to solve the problems independently.
(2)	Invite them to explain the procedure and methods taken to solve the problem.
(3)	Required them to get a higher level of and more sophisticated answer for the same question.
(4)	Encourage them to probe deeper into the same question.

(4) Evaluation and assessment

Each pupil is to be assessed on what he or she has been targeted to learn through formative assessment instead of norm referencing tests. Means of evaluation should be broadened from pencil-and-paper assessment to continuous observation on pupil’s responses in class, participation in discussion and other projects, transference of what has been learnt in daily living etc.

3.5.3

Strategies for Remedial Teaching

Some strategies for group or individual remedial teaching are suggested as follows to enhance pupils’ academic achievement.

(1) Additional practice

This is a strategy to help pupils whose difficulties arise from lack of practice.

(2) Re-teaching

When pupils are unable to understand fully the teaching content, teachers should find out the reasons behind and modify the teaching steps and strategies. Re-teach the content to help pupils reaching the learning targets.

(3) Activity approach of learning

Both teaching and learning are carried out mainly through activities. Teachers have to arrange activities carefully, which include games, competitions and role play. It is to induce active participation from pupils, improve their attitudes towards learning and enhance pupil-pupil and teacher-pupil relationship.

(4)

Precision Teaching

Precision teaching can improve the effectiveness of learning. It is a behaviour oriented teaching strategy derived from task analysis. Through monitoring daily progress, the teacher comes to know if the teaching method adopted is effective.

Precision teaching is a highly structured and systemic mode of teaching. It stresses the following three principles :

(a)	Being meticulous in curriculum design,
(b)	Exact and detailed recording of pupils’ learning progress,
(c)	Continuous assessment of the effectiveness of teaching and learning.

The central theme of precision teaching is the use of highly structured observation to measure pupils’ performance and progress. Data will be used as indicator of the effectiveness in teaching and learning. Continuous assessment is emphasised. Teachers will modify the teaching steps, materials, strategies, activities and learning environment according to pupils’ performance.

(5)

Co-operative Learning

Co-operative learning is a method of promoting co-operation among pupils rather than competition. Essentially, pupils work together to seek solutions for the problems instead of competing against one another. Two important elements of co-operative learning are motivation induced from and accomplishment of the tasks through co-operation. It also provides opportunities for pupils to gain a sense of achievement by recognition from the group.

Four models of co-operative learning have been developed:

(a)	Jig-saw approach Each pupil is assigned one part of the task which is to be assembled into a whole when finished.
(b)	Group work Pupils contribute their knowledge in their groups to complete the task.
(c)	Inter-team competition Pupils are grouped into learning teams. After teachers have presented new teaching contents, each team is to practise what they have learned by doing worksheets. Team members may questions each other, work in pairs, or by any ways of cooperation to enable all team members to acquire the knowledge just learned. Finally, through individual questioning, scores are compiled together to get a team score upon which the winner for the inter-team competition will be decided.
(d)	Team support approach Pupils are requested to learn again what they have not mastered. They can seek help from either their teachers or peers, and practise until they master the content. Then the class can proceed to the more advanced topic.

Studies have shown that co-operative learning enhance motivation and persistence in completing academic tasks.

(6)

Peer Tutoring

Peer tutoring is the systematic guidance to some junior class or academically less able pupils by teacher selected peers from senior classes or the better functioning and behaving pupils. These young tutors are trained beforehand the basic principles of remedial work and their duties.

Studies have indicated that peer tutoring is beneficial academically and non-academically to both the young tutors and the pupils under their guidance. Pupils being helped, besides showing progress academically, are improving in non-academic aspects such as attendance rate and discipline. To the young tutors, they are given the chance of leadership training and practice. Their confidence and sense of belonging to the school is enhanced at the same time. This approach can be implemented in groups or individually.

Besides the selection of young tutors and their training, its success depends very much on teachers’ supervision throughout the process. This includes contracting and monitoring the attendance so that both the young tutors and pupils being helped are working according to schedule.

3.5.4. Strategies for Classroom Management

Classroom management means the ways in which individual teachers organise their flow of teaching and the learning environment in order to facilitate pupils’ learning. Good classroom management allows the pupils to get a clear picture of what is going on and what is expected of them, and the consistent consequences of their desirable and undesirable behaviour. It also includes teachers’ self-reflection on their work and adjustment for the identified unsuccessful strategies in their teaching. Besides keeping class order, good classroom management help teachers conduct the lesson more effectively and know the classroom situations more accurately. A competent and confident teacher image should then be presented.

According to teachers’experience, good classroom management relate to the following :

(1)	Start and end the lesson on time. This enhances pupils’ awareness of punctuality.
(2)	Be well prepared in major things like teaching material and aids as well as trivial things such as the supply of stationery.
(3)	Settle the class quickly and capture their attention on the teacher and the learning task. A quick question-and-answer revision or an audio-visual presentation prior to the teaching may be useful. It must be interesting and attracting.
(4)	Insist on full class cooperation. Have some unfailing tactics for calming the class and gaining their attention. e.g. to call their name at will.
(5)	Get the whole class engaged in work. Class activities and work should be so arranged that pupils of different levels of ability and attention span are taken care of. So all are kept busy, leaving no room for mischief.
(6)	Effective use of voice is important because it is the major medium of communication between the teacher and the pupils. It must be of sufficient volume, clear and pleasant to listen to. Interesting words and phrases should be used when appropriate.
(7)	Be alert to what is happening in the class by walking around, using eye contact. Identifying where the trouble is going to start and to nip the trouble in the bud immediately by looks, gestures, proximity, touch or questions. On top of this, the teacher needs to establish a set of classroom rules for routine issues e.g. asking for help, leaving the room, complaining against a fellow classmate etc.
(8)	Analyse what is happening in the class to understand the underlying causes, changes in factors eliciting pupils’ behaviour and their impression of the teacher. These information could be obtained with the help of a tape recorder or a record of class observation by a fellow teacher.
(9)	Crisis intervention guides should be clear and well understood by teachers. They should also familiarize themselves with the procedural rules so that they can manage the crisis smoothly reducing dramatisation of the issue.
(10)	Teachers should allocate their attention fairly evenly to all pupils so that every pupil can feel that the teacher is concerned. For those who are more passive, the teacher has to take the initiative to attend to them and show concern.
(11)	Avoid drawing comparison among pupils because resentment against the teacher and detachment in the class would arise.
(12)	Keep up-to-date with marking. Adjust the planning for the coming lessons according to pupils’ progress. Proper marking can make pupils feel that their efforts being recognized. When the marked work is handed back, compliment for the hard worker is important.
(13)	Make sure promises are kept. Failure to keep promises would induce resentment from pupils and damage the trusting relationship between teacher and pupils.
(14)	Make good use of questions. This can focus pupils’ attention and enhance interaction in learning.
(15)	Ensure adequate opportunities for practice on what has been learned. Both of the primary and secondary pupils enjoy doing things rather than simply sitting and listening. A large portion of each lesson should be used for practice or activities in order to avoid discipline problems arisen from boredom. However, detailed preparation is required and enough time for changing activities and clearing up should be provided.
(16)	Wherever practicable, delegate the routine classroom chores to pupils. It can show teacher’s trust in them and train up their sense of responsibility. Moreover, this may leave more time for teacher-pupil contact.
(17)	Classroom should be properly and practically arranged and displayed, e.g. the seating plan and equipment or materials for specific learning should be properly arranged according to the characteristics of the pupils and activities.
(18)	Take timely control of pupil’s problems which may matter little to teacher but a great deal to the pupil. This helps to reduce anxiety and frustration. Ensure the pupil that the problem will be handled within an agreed time. Afterwards, the class should be briefed, during class periods or sometime during lesson, on how to handle similar situations. It should be conducted under a friendly, non-judgmental and democratic atmosphere in which pupils feel respected.
(19)	When incidence occurs during lesson, teachers should make clear how the incidence would be handled, end the lesson punctually, and leave the class calmly. Good classroom management is based on good teacher-pupil rapport and positive attitude of teachers.