IMPLEMENTATION
OF THE CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
OF THE CURRICULUM
Each subject can be broken down into a number of modules. For example, perceptual training and motor co-ordination are essential modules in the subject of Perceptual Motor Training. The teacher might need to translate these modules into concrete learning targets for actual teaching in the classroom.
It will be more beneficial to the children if these learning targets are defined in terms of different types of outcome such as skills, behaviour, knowledge, attitudes, values and interests.
4.1.2 STEPS FOR PLANNING LEARNING TARGETS
The teacher can plan the learning targets that make up the modules in the following four basic steps:
(1) Specifying Learning Targets inBehavioural TermsAll learning targets should be expressed in observable behaviour or skills. For example, when instructed, the children are to button up their shirts with six buttons for four times. Each learning target in its written form should contain the following elements :
(a) (b)
Pre-requisite Skills ─ These are the basic skills that the children should have mastered before learning other more difficult skills.
(c) Instruction and Materials Required ─ This refers to the instruction and materials required for teaching. The conditions under which the instruction should be given may sometimes be included.
(d) A very important part of curriculum implementation is that the teacher should consider carefully the order in which learning targets should be learnt. It is logical to put learning targets requiring lower level skills before those requiring higher level skills, for example, teaching the children to draw lines before teaching them to write. In some cases, the targets themselves may form a definite sequence or hierarchy when the skills actually come in a continuous or chained sequence, for example, putting on a shirt and buttoning it up. Some higher level targets can be learnt more quickly after the pre-requisite skills have been mastered. For example, learning to write will become easier when eye-hand co-ordination skill has been acquired. It follows that unrelated targets can be learnt in any order.
Baseline Assessment ProceduresThis is the specification of the procedures to identify the current skill level or the pre-requisite skills of the children. The assessment enables the teacher to know whether or not the children have acquired the pre-requisite skills required for learning the target. (Refer to Sections 4.5 - 4.5.4 for details)
(4) Procedures for Writing Programmes to Teach Target Skills
With the pre-requisite skills of the children known, the teacher can then design learning materials to help them achieve the target skills. The learning materials should be designed in small steps and in order of difficulty. The teacher should choose the appropriate step for the children according to their pre-requisite skills, so as to bridge the gap between their pre-requisite skills and the target skills.
To teach target skills effectively, the following teaching approaches are suggested :
(1)Modelling(2)Children learn by imitating other people's behaviour. Modelling therefore underlies most of the learning activities. The teacher can either demonstrate the behaviour to be learnt or point out the target behaviour performed by other children and encourage the children to imitate it.
Task Analysis(3)Task analysis is a way to break down target skills into smaller steps according to the children's abilities and learning needs. The teacher can then teach the steps in a planned sequence. Task analysis should be used with flexibility to help the children with further difficulties in learning the planned steps. The technique can also be applied to a blocking step to further break down the planned steps into even smaller steps for easier learning. Once the difficulty is overcome, the original teaching steps can be resumed until the target skill is achieved.
Chaining(4)This means breaking down a target skill into a series of steps to describe the action to be performed in sequence. The sequence can be written in a forward or backward order, depending on the nature of the target skill to be learnt. For example, most dressing and undressing skills can be taught by chaining. The more effective approach to teach dressing skills is backward chaining because this would ensure that the children will be able to complete the task. Forward chaining would be more appropriate in teaching target skills such as operating a washing machine or writing one’s own name.
Discrimination Learning(5)When the target skill to be learnt involves choosing the right answer, discrimination learning is a more effective approach. For example, a child is given several choices (including some distractors) from which to pick out the correct answer. In this approach, it is necessary to control both the characteristics and the number of the distractors used. At the initial stage, the difference between the distractors and the target choice should be as great as possible and the number of distractors used should be as small as possible. That means the strength of the distractors should be low (e.g. a circle and a big square, then a circle and a square, and finally a circle and an eclipse). As the child begins to master the initial step, the number of distractors used can be increased gradually.
Information Gathering(6)Children may sometimes lack the information required to analyse the problems they encounter. The teacher should teach them to gather relevant information from various sources, e.g. teachers, parents, newspapers or the library and help them develop a more objective and systematic way to deal with problems. Activities, such as organizing a birthday party or a picnic, would help the children understand the procedures of information gathering and its importance.
Induction(7)This is an approach to help the children form a holistic concept from the characteristics of different things. The children are thus trained to observe the various characteristics of things --their similarities, differences as well as relationships and then exercise induction.
DiscussionThis approach is often used in group teaching. Through discussions, the children learn to look into problems and are thus motivated to think. Through discussions, they express their own views and at the same time listen to other children's views, so that they can review their own. The teacher needs to ensure that each child is given equal opportunity to participate in discussions. Thus, discussions can promote greater interaction among the children. More important still, they help the children to realise the importance of accepting other people's views while expressing their own.
The following are ways to teach target skills :
(1)Prompting(2)This skill can be used at any stage of the programme. There are various kinds of prompts : physical guidance, physical prompts, gestures, verbal prompts, eye pointing, etc. Prompts should only be used when required and should be faded out as soon as the children demonstrate certain degree of mastery.
Shaping(3)This refers to the increase in precision in the behaviour to be performed. It involves successive approximation of the target behaviour. Another aspect of shaping which is not so obvious is the shaping of the target behaviour by manipulating the materials used. An example of this is teaching the children to thread a needle with a big eye using thick thread and then gradually increasing the precision by using an ordinary needle and sewing thread.
Fading(4)This means gradual removal of the various prompts as the children begin to master the target behaviour. At the initial stage, the teacher can use prompts with more help . Then at a later stage , he can use prompts with less help. One common example is the gradual removal of the strokes of a word when teaching the children to write.
GeneralizationWhen the children know how to apply the knowledge or skills they have acquired to new situations, they have achieved generalization. The ultimate purpose of generalization is to reinforce the children's social adjustment. For example, when a child applies the table manners he has learnt at school to the environment of his home or a restaurant , generalization is achieved.
The following are important considerations in formulating teaching approaches for MH children :
(1) Observing the children’s behaviour, planning goals and targets appropriate to their ages, levels of development and interests and building on their areas of strength; (2) Using situations familiar to the children and those which they can experience in their everyday life; (3) Using activities which are as practical as possible; (4) Making the children feel secure and willing to express themselves and giving them opportunities to learn by doing; (5) Breaking down a task into simple steps to facilitate learning; (6) Providing the children with opportunities for direct sensory contact, for manipulating real objects or relating learning experiences to real life situations; (7) Using various media extensively and varying the teaching approaches and techniques according to individual learning needs; (8) Using encouragement and reward to reinforce the children's motivation to learn.
Quite often, the teacher is faced with a class of mixed abilities or with different behaviour problems. He will have to teach them in groups or individually. The following are some suggested forms of grouping :
(1) Small Group Teaching
Small group teaching means splitting the class into different ability groups and teaching the children with different approaches. This would help the children learn by imitating and helping each other and apply what they have learnt to other situations. Small group teaching also helps to reinforce the children's ability to communicate and co-operate with each other. Take the teaching of colour concept for instance. The teacher can set the children's baselines according to assessment results and split the class into three groups as follows:
(a) Junior group － In this group, the concept of red and blue colours is taught. The children are taught through a matching game to put the cubes into boxes of corresponding colours. (b) Intermediate group － In this group, the concept of red, yellow, blue and green colours is taught with one type of teaching aid, such as cubes. The children are asked to pass cubes of the same colour to the teacher and name the colour after him. (c) Senior group － In this group, the concept of red, yellow, blue, green, black and white colours is taught with different types of teaching aids which include cubes, beads, Lego, etc. The children are asked to pick up different things of the same colour and name the colour when the teacher picks up one thing. If the children can name the colour correctly, the teacher will ask them to pick out things of the same colour from the cupboard according to instructions.
(2) Individual Teaching
This allows learning materials to be tailored to meet the specific needs of individual children. The teacher can focus his attention exclusively on individual children and likewise the children only need to attend to one teacher and one set of learning materials during this period.
A comprehensive curriculum design should include ongoing assessment and a clear record of progress. This will ensure that teaching procedures will be consistent and continuous. This consistency and continuity will in turn ensure that the planned programmes will match the actual progress of the children.(Refer to Sections 4.5 for details)
Successful curriculum development also depends upon the effective utilization of resources in the school and in the community, particularly human resources.
All members of staff can contribute to curriculum development in terms of knowledge and experience. Through regular contacts with the children, the teacher can identify the range of knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes which need to be developed in them. His understanding of the children's learning needs will enable him to see the different parts of the curriculum as an integral whole. It is therefore essential to involve all teachers in curriculum development.
Specialist staff such aseducational psychologists,speech therapists,occupational therapists,physiotherapists,social workers, etc. should also be encouraged to contribute to the enrichment of the curriculum. They should be encouraged to suggest how existing programmes can be adapted to meet the needs of children with additional handicaps. The joint involvement of professionals of different disciplines in curriculum development will foster the co-operation between the school and related professionals.Parents are also valuable resources of the school. They should be encouraged to participate in curriculum development and to follow-up at home on what their children have learnt at school, thus reinforcing their learning. This joint effort between the school and the parents will contribute much to the education of the children.
The effective use of space in the school helps to develop in the children an awareness, understanding and appreciation of their surroundings. Physical constraints can be overcome by careful planning and flexible utilization of teaching bases and common areas. Arrangements within the classroom can be varied to suit different teaching purposes.
Community resources should be utilized for teaching purposes as well. Appropriate use of these resources will help to enhance the children's understanding of the people around them, their role in society and the relationship between people and their environment. Therefore, facilities available in the community should be used or introduced to the children to enrich their life experiences.
Time allocation is one of the major concerns in curriculum planning. It is for individual schools to decide how the curriculum is to be organized in terms of content and time allocation. Basically, flexibility should be allowed so that the varied needs of different schools, classes and individual children can be met.
In designing a time-table, apart from classroom availability, options, etc. other variables such as the children's abilities and learning needs, should be given prior consideration.
At different stages of development, the children require different skills to help them cope with those needs which are characteristic of a particular developmental stage. Priority of learning should therefore be given to these skills and emphasis in training should vary according to the present and future goals of these children. The understanding of the children’s needs will facilitate time-table arrangements, with due weight given to various subject areas.
Apart from basic and functional academics, the children also need to develop their capacity to respond appropriately to sensory and social experiences, regardless of their ages and abilities. This involves the exploration and understanding of aesthetic and creative experiences, which may be integrated in any part of the curriculum. Music, Art and Craft and Physical Education contribute particularly to such development. The children also need to acquire these skills as leisure time activities. In considering the allocation of time to these areas of learning for both the junior and senior sections of the school, similar emphasis should be given.
Apart from basic and functional academics, the children also need to develop their capacity to respond appropriately to sensory and social experiences, regardless of their ages and abilities. This involves the exploration and understanding of aesthetic and creative experiences, which may be integrated in any part of the curriculum. Music, Art and Craft and Physical Education contribute particularly to such development. The children also need to acquire these skills as leisure time activities. In considering the allocation of time to these areas of learning for both the junior and senior sections of the school, similar emphasis should be given.
Classroom arrangements should provide a favourable environment and atmosphere conducive to learning. This requires good planning in the use of space, arrangement of furniture, display of learning materials, etc. Flexibility should be allowed so that the arrangements can vary according to the type of learning activity adopted at the time. For example, desks and chairs can be arranged in groups rather than in straight lines so that the children can work in groups of various sizes according to their different abilities and learning needs.
To provide the children with maximum exposure to a diversity of learning environment and experiences, the following learning corners/interest areas are suggested as possible variations :
educational
toys corner / toys resources room These learning corners and interest areas serve different purposes. For example, the reading corner is for the display of light reading materials for casual reading; the educational toys corner is for the children to learn through play; the nature corner serves to nurture in the children the love of plants and animals as well as the way to look after them and the creative work area helps with the development of creativity in the children. The children should be asked to remember where the various materials are kept and to put them back after use. Therefore, these learning corners and interest areas can provide them with a wide range of learning experiences.
To enhance the learning environment, display boards are valuable display areas for the children's work, group projects, charts, diagrams, photos, cut-outs from newspapers or magazines, etc. all of which have much to contribute to the children's learning and enhance their sense of achievement. The following is an example of classroom arrangements:
< Click on the Picture!> (Press Ctrl or Shift Key to zoom in /out)
A well-structured curriculum should enable the school to follow a procedure of teaching intervention, incorporating assessment, programme planning and evaluation. To achieve this aim, criterion-referenced assessment designed by the teacher is recommended.
Assessment should not be seen as something external to the learning process or something added on at the end of a learning sequence simply for administrative purposes or as a means of reporting to parents. Rather, it is an integral part of effective learning, whereby the children are provided with feedback on their progress. The teacher should plan in his scheme of work the learning experiences which he will provide for the children. Similarly, as part of his scheme of work, he should also plan the assessment of the children’s progress.
4.5.1 Purposes of Assessments:
| (a) | To identify the children's learning needs; |
| (b) | To help the teacher plan educational programmes for the children; |
| (c) | To indicate which specific educational objectives have or have not been achieved; |
| (d) | To serve as continuous evaluation. |
(a) Identifying the children's learning needs; (b) Assessing the children's baselines in specific subjects and establishing their pre-requisite skills; (c) Setting learning objectives; (d) Implementing curriculum programmes; (e) Implementing curriculum programmes; (f) Evaluating the effectiveness of curriculum programmes & Making adaptations to curriculum programmes.
The following flow chart will illustrate the assessment process :
4.5.4 Methods of Assessment
When evaluating the children's performance in terms of specific criteria set, the teacher has to analyse the curriculum and the method of instruction used before he can develop appropriate assessment to identify the children's learning needs. As the teacher knows the children better, he is in a better position to assess their learning needs.
In order to gather relevant information and collect observational data, assessment designed by the teacher should be used to measure the children's specific skills and abilities. The assessment may be in the form of checklists, paper-pencil tests, interviews or observation of the children engaged in activities. They should be individually administered both at the beginning and at the end of the teaching period, so that the children's progress can be measured. The assessment results will then reflect the children's strengths and weaknesses. Assessment is thus an important part of the teaching process.
4.6.1 Step to be Taken in Curriculum Development
To ensure the quality of education, schools should be actively involved in curriculum development and implementation. Curriculum development involves the following steps:
| (1) | Identifying the learning needs of the children; |
| (2) | Setting priorities in these learning needs for curriculum development; |
| (3) | Searching and retrieving resources from within and outside the school; |
| (4) | Designing curriculum programmes; |
| (5) | Implementing curriculum programmes; |
| (6) | Evaluating the effectiveness of curriculum programmes; |
| (7) | Making adaptations to curriculum programmes. |
4.6.2 Whole School Approach at Macro and Micro Levels
As schools differ from each other in terms of the needs of their children, resources available, the environment, the competence of their teachers, etc., a whole-school approach to curriculum development at a macro or micro level will help to achieve educational efficacy.
From a macro and administrative point of view, the head of school and teachers should not be the only persons responsible for the design and implementation of the curriculum. Other professionals such as school social workers, educational psychologists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, physiotherapists and nurses working in the school and parents should also participate in curriculum development. The valuable professional knowledge, experiences and opinions of each specialist group not only help to make the curriculum more relevant, but also serve as a kind of in-service training for all concerned. With this team approach to curriculum development, the professionals involved can have a better understanding of curriculum development through actual participation. This will also guarantee the quality as well as quantity of the curriculum planned and might possibly reduce the gap between the planned and the actual progress of the children. Besides, a cross-curriculum approach can also be adopted in curriculum development, e.g. development across such subjects as Language, Mathematics and General Studies. The development can also be across levels, e.g. at the primary level or secondary level, in the whole school or for all autistic children in the school. In fact, the school-based curriculum development and TOC at present tried out in schools are such concepts put into practice.
If schools are presently not ready for the implementation of this whole-school approach to curriculum development at a macro level, they can start at a micro level. For example, several teachers can jointly undertake the design of curriculum materials in one subject for a group of children. When ready, this mode of implementation can be extended to a macro level.
To facilitate the development, a good working atmosphere is necessary, under which all teaching and specialist staff are encouraged to co-operate with and rely upon each other for sharing of knowledge and experience. Regular channels of communication such as case conferences, staff seminars, bulletins, etc. should be used to facilitate such sharing. It is also important that initiative and participation should be encouraged at all levels.
